Leadership And Management At Apple Corporation Management Essay

Leadership And Management At Apple Corporation Management Essay Those in management position must develop a leadership style. The selection of styles is contingent on the leaders personal traits. Ultimately, the leader has to select a style that will be most effective for the situation at hand. The general leadership style includes: autocratic, democratic, participative, and laissez faire. Autocratic leaders  tend to tells subordinates what to do and expect them to do it. The subordinates of an autocratic leader are not involved in decision making and have little if any autonomy. Democratic leaders  seek input from subordinates and do what the majority of subordinates want. Some argue that a democratic leader is more of a facilitator than a leader.  Participative leaders  tend to involve subordinates in leadership activities and decision making, but ultimately they retain final authority. A  laissez-faire leader  takes a hands-off approach to leadership, allowing subordinates to make decisions. The mantra of a laissez- faire leader is Hire good people and get out of their way. In this assignment I will focus on just one type the autocratic leadership style its strenghts and weakenesses and when to use this leadership style. To support that, I will also be writing about the Apple Corporation, which includes the CEO of the Corporation Steve Jobs leadership styles and the problems he face. Autocratic leadership Autocratic leadership is an extreme form of transactional leadership, where leaders have absolute power over their workers or team. Staff and team members have little opportunity to make suggestions, even if these would be in the teams or the organizations best interest. Most people tend to resent being treated like this. Therefore, autocratic leadership usually leads to high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover. For some routine and unskilled jobs, the style can remain effective because the advantages of control may outweigh the disadvantages. Aurocratic leadership is a more traditional and classical approach to management relying upon threats and punishment to influence its employees. This style is often called the hard approach to leadership. This method, according to UT (2001) is effective for many reasons; When there is limited time to make a decision. -When there are new and untrained employees who do not know how to perform certain tasks. -When effective supervision can be provided only by orders and instruction. -When employees do not respond to other leadership styles. When work must be integrated with other departments. Mintzberg (1979) described situations in which an autocratic style was most applicable. Entrepreneurial organisations are normally smaller businesses which develop from the ideas and entrepreneurial spirit of one person. This person is responsible for their organisation and makes all the decisions the characteristics of an autocrat. The nature of these smaller organisations and the relative lack of formalisation mean that autocratic leadership is commonplace in this particular part of industry. Another situation where the autocratic leadership style proves appropriate is while doing group projects. Many group projects tend to fail because group members depend on each other to make decisions. Such situations demand the need of an authoritative leader who can make decisions for the group. The leader should determine the ways in which the project would be done, divide the job among the members, and also set a deadline for completion of the project. Though there have been cases where adopting an autocratic leadership style has led to the success of the company, it is very rare for such leaders to remain popular among the employees and workers. In a nut shell, it can be said that autocratic leadership can be accepted when the need arises, while a good leader would be a person who respects the opinions of his employees while making a decision. Autocratic leaders in the work place Autorcratic leadership in the work place will permit quick decisions, facilitates speedy implementation of plans, leaders are highly satisfied. It will also be effective when subordinates are less knowledgeable and experienced, and in case of extreme crises, this style may be the only solution. However some studies suggest that organizations with lots of autocratic leaders have higher turnover and absenteeism than other organizations.   With todays emphasis on joint decision making and empowerment, employees just entering the workforce will be highly resistant to this management style. So the autocratic leadership style should be not be used when you want to get your employees engaged in the decision making process.   Autocratic leaders are also not very effective in situations where your employees might become resentful or fearful. Finally, if your company is struggling with low morale or is interested in building employee relationships, an  autocratic leadership style  will only make things worse. The Apple Corporation Apple was launched successfully in 1976 by Founders Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, with the company initially growing at a tremendous rate -led by the Apple II and other state of the art computer products. In September 1997, Steve Jobs was appointed the interim CEO of leading information technology (IT) company, Apple Computers (Apple), by the Apple board. Considering the fact that the companys board itself had ousted Steve in a coup in 1983, this development was watched with interest by media and industry observers. Steves comeback was being seen as Apples desperate attempt to survive one of its worst phases: losses for 1997 amounted to $ 1.6 billion. The company reportedly needed a charismatic leader who could steer it back to profitability and revive its fortunes. Those who had followed Steves career graph over the decades were not too surprised at these developments. Steve made a successful business out of creating PCs that were not only user friendly but were also aesthetically pleasing, unlike the dull models available those days. Steves research on the Macintosh resulted in the creation of the windows interface and the mouse technology, which went on to become standards in the s oftware industry. Steve was named the Entrepreneur of the Decade in 1989 by Inc magazine. He was also placed 39th on the Advertising Age Top 100 Advertising People list. Internally Steve Jobs tends to be very authoritative, His decisions were made with minimal consultation, and his decisions were made quicker allowing him to respond to changes in the business environment more quickly. The Environmental changes which includes facing their competitors, such as Microsoft. On the other hand, because of his manipulative behavior he is considered by some of his employees as authoritative. His behavior and Autocratic style in meetings for instance is described as being rude, and obnoxious. Because of his quest for perfection he has domineering presence which makes some of the employees fear him. Figure 1.1 Apples Biggest Competitors remains to be the Microsoft Corporation. Although Bill Gates Leadership style was democratic and participative, Steve Jobs was autocratic and efficient in a way. His work is a demonstration of both innovation and creativity. He is responsible for the creation and release of the iPod and I Phones. Most people do not know this, but Apple Inc. put up overwhelming resistance when Jobs proposed the iPod idea. For Apple, that represents an impressive 250 percent revenue growth. And Due to Steves speedy decisions, Figure 1.1 shows that Apple could catch up with Microsoft as early as 2010 or 2011, given the current growth rates. Pros and Cons of Autocratic Leadership In fact we might not think there are a lot of good things to say about autocratic leaders. This style of leadership is often very stressful on fellow employees and makes the  work environment  itself not such a fun place to be.   But like all leadership styles, there is a time and a situation where the style is appropriate. style pros cons Autocratic Effective for theory X Workers Gives leader control over decisions Loses effectiveness over time Theory Y workers may not respond Does not develop future leaders Pros of Autocratic Leadership In the workplace, some conditions may simply call for urgent action, and in these cases an autocratic style of leadership may be best style to adopt. Surprisingly, most workers have already worked for an autocratic leader and therefore have little trouble adapting to that style. In fact, in times of stress or emergency some subordinates may actually prefer an autocratic style they prefer to be told exactly what to do.   So to summarize the autocratic leadership style is very effective when times are stressful, but very stressful during those times when the pressure is off the followers or coworkers. Steve Jobs in the Apple Corporation for instance preferred the autocratic style for quicker decision making and also control over his decisions. Steve Jobs is demanding both towards himself and towards his employees. His deadlines often seem impossible to meet, but is constantly moving, moving towards improvement in all spheres and fields of his work. Due to Steve Jobs high Autocratic leadership style, some ways Apple might be better off without Steve Jobs. But case in point, the rapid decisions and invention of such items as IPods, I Phones were very difficult and complex in implementation. Only an autocratic leader like Jobs could ever withstand the public outcry for such basic functionality. Cons of Autocratic Leadership The communication style of an autocratic leader is usually described as one way.   They tell you exactly what they want done.  The feedback you would get from this type of leader would generally be unplanned.  They would simply tell you when youve made a mistake. The decision making process is usually unilateral and they accomplish goals by directing people.   Now that might not sound like the type of leader youd follow. Although Steve Jobs way of leading autocratically will enable faster decisions to be made in the short term, but this will deprive subordinates of the opportunity to gain experience and start on their own leadership development, (Does not develop future leaders). The subordinates cannot learn from their mistakes, and the manager is actually de-skilling their workforce which will lead to poorer decisions and productivity in the long run. Figure 1.2 Apple Inc Vs Microsoft Company. How did Bill Gates and Steve Jobs Differ in their Leadership Style? Well, Bill gates leadership is participative style because he involves his subordinates in decision making. He is a flexible person and he recognized his role was to be visionary of the company. Whenever needed, he bring professional managing and well structure of the organization. His motivating power and involving friends to working with him became the success of Microsoft. On the other hand, Steve Jobs leadership is autocratic style, because he centralizes the authority, he never given a chance to subordinates to involving decision making. He thinks that whatever he do is right. His relation with employees is not good; he fails to motivate them in many times. His conceited and self-satisfied attitude and lack of management skills became a threat of Apples success. Conclusion So, does an autocratic style of leadership always ensure organizational success? The simple answer is no. A style of leadership can never ensure success but what it can do is to aid that process and compel it into being a success. Autocratic styles of leadership are becoming less and less applicable but there are still many contexts in which they work. Entrepreneurial organizations especially in their early and formative years rely upon this style as without it there would be no conviction and effective decision making. Where it fails is in larger organizations where employees hold greater power and there is a more formalized culture. Democracy in decision making and involving them is a key to maintaining employee motivation which is vital for the productivity of the company. Leadership is action, not position.   Donald H. Mcgannon

Reinforcement and Employees Essay

Q3. What tools does Walmart use to motivate employees? How might a lack of motivation affect associates and how should managers respond? Give me a W! Give me an A! Give me an L! Give me a squiggly! Give me an M! Give an A! Give me an R! Give me a T! What’s that spell? Walmart! Whose Walmart is it? It’s my Walmart ! Who’s number one? The customer! Always! The good times continue at Walmart, and so do hard work and achievement. For many employees, seeing peers rewarded for a job well done proves highly motivational. Executives at Walmart refer to the company as one big family. There are no grunts or gophers –no employee, no matter how new, is thought of as low person on the totem. According to the company’s â€Å"open door† policy, all associates are encouraged to speak freely, share concerns, and express ideas for improving daily operations. In return, they can expect managers to treat all discussions fairly with an open mind. The policy is ri ght out of Walton’s playbook. â€Å"Listen to your associates,† Walton urged. â€Å"They’re the best idea generators.† The founder’s wisdom is routinely reaffirmed through the oft-repeated quote that â€Å"nothing constructive happens in Bentonville† – a reference to Walton headquarters. In Walton’s grass – roots ethic, local employees are the ones most likely to produce fresh ideas. One significant way managers can meet higher motivational needs is to shift power down from the top of organization and share it with employees to enable them to achieve goals. Empowerment is power sharing, the delegation of power or authority to subordinates in an organization. Increasing employee motivation for task accomplishment because people improve their own effectiveness, choosing how to do a task and using their creativity. Empowerment is one way managers promote self- reinforcement and self- efficacy, as defined in the discussion of social learning. Empowering employees involves giving them four elements that enable them to act more freely accomplish their jobs: information knowledge, power, and rewards. First of all, employees receive information about company performance. In companies where employees are fully empowered, all employees have access to all financial and operational information. Secondly, employees have knowledge and skills to contribute to company goals. Companies use training programs and other development tools to help people acquire the knowledge and skills they need to contribute to organizational performance. The third motivation is employees have the power to make substantive decision. Empowered employees have the authority to directly influence work procedures and organizational performance, such as through quality circles or self- directed work teams. And last but not least, employees are rewarded based on company performance. Organizations that empower workers often reward them based on the results shown in the company’s bottom line. Organizations may also use other motivational compensation programs described in Exhibit 16.8 to tie employee efforts to company performance. Exhibit 16.8 Many of today’s organizations are implementing empowerment programs, but they are empowering workers to varying degrees. At some companies, empowerment means encouraging workers’ idea while managers retain final authority for decisions; at others it means giving employees almost complete freedom and power to make decisions and exercise initiative and imagination. Current methods of empowerment fall along a continuum, as illustrated in exhibit 16.9 . The continuum runs from situation in which front- line workers have almost no discretion, such as on a traditional assembly line, to full empowerment, where workers even participate in formulating organizational strategy. Exhibit 16.9 Perhaps the most important things managers can do to enhance organizational communication and dialogue can encourage people to communicate honestly with one another. Subordinates will feel free to transmit negative as well as positive message to managers without fear of retribution. Efforts to develop interpersonal skills among employees can also foster openness, honesty, and trust. Second, managers should develop and use formal communication channels in all direction. Scandinavian Designs uses two newsletters to reach employees. Dana Holding Corporation developed the â€Å"Here a Thought† board- called a HAT rack- to get ideas and feedback from workers. Other techniques include direct mail, bulletin boards, blogs, and employee surveys. Third, managers should encourage the use of multiple channels including both formal and informal communications. Multiple communication channels include written directives, face- to- face discussions, and the grapevine. For example, managers at GM’s Packard Electric plant use multimedia, including a monthly newspaper, frequent meeting of employees’ teams and an electronic news display in the cafeteria. Sending messages through multiple channels increases the likelihood that they will be properly received. Fourth, the structure should fit communication needs. An organization can be designed to use teams, task forces, project managers, or matrix structure as needed to facilitate the horizontal flow of information for coordination and problem solving. Structure should also reflect information need. When team or department task are difficult, a decentralized structure should be implemented to encourage discussion and participation. Empowerment is the process of distributing decision-making power throughout an organization. It is a process which enables employees to set personal work goals, make minor decisions and to solve conflicts by using their personal authority. Team Bonuses, in situations in which employees should cooperate with each other and isolating employee performance is more difficult, companies are increasingly resorting to tying employee pay to team performance. For example, in 2007, Wal-Mart gave bonuses to around 80% of their associates based on store performance. If empl oyees have a reasonable ability to influence their team’s performance level, these programs may be effective. One way Wal-Mart facilitates respect for an individual is through an open-door policy that allows employees of all levels to communicate with managers in higher levels of the company. This open-door policy is also a way of keeping unions from forming in the company. The philosophy is that when employees have avenues for expressing their complaints and problems, there will be no reason to have union representatives (Cray, 2000; Slater, 2003). However, people may question how effective this policy is, because employees still attempt to form unions. Walton also believed in the importance of having a clear flow of communication with his workers, claiming that the more information they received the harder they would work for him. â€Å"The more they know, the more they’ll understand,† he said. â€Å"The more they understand, the more they’ll care. Once they care, there’s no stopping them.† To Walton, the free flow of information between him and his worke rs demonstrated the trust and respect he had for them. Without that trust, Walton felt he could not succeed. â€Å"Information is power, and the gain you get from empowering your associates more than offsets the risk of informing your competitor,† he said. For Walton, the bottom line was to appreciate his workers and to make them feel valued. He knew that a paycheck and stock options alone would not guarantee loyalty or hard work. Instead, he realized the importance of making sure his workers knew they were appreciated. â€Å"Nothing else can quite substitute for a few well-chosen, well-timed, sincere words of praise,† he said. â€Å"They’re absolutely free – and worth a fortune.† By having motivated and loyal employees, Walton could then use them as his secret weapon. â€Å"The folks on the front lines – the ones who actually talk to the customer – are the only ones who really know what’s going on out there,† he said. By listening to his workers and their ideas, Walton could stay on top of his game; â€Å"This really is what total quality is about.† Listen to everyone in your practice/team. Obviously your team is a lot smaller than Wal-Mart, but Sam’s tactic of figu ring out ways to get â€Å"front line† people talking holds true for advisors. You can gain a lot of insight into your clients, and it will help strengthen relationships with support personnel. And yes, listen to your clients too. continuous communication is the most important thing to remember. Change usually causes fear about different things. Communication must be very open, honest and encouraging. It also has to cover all the parties involved in the change. Happy employees mean happy customers. Walton admitted that initially he was so stingy and did not give good pay to his employees. But eventually he realized that he should give a larger payment to his employees because they are considered as â€Å"business partners†. According to Walton, who treated the way management is the same business partner in a way that applied to the consumer. If the business partner treats their customers well then the consumer will come again and again therein lies the advantage and business success. Walton also often visited his shop and asked for their opinions, especially employees who are on the front lines, those who actually faced and talking with customers, as people who know the real situation on the ground. Management’s number one goal with their employees is to make working at Wal-Mart fun and rewarding. They even have their own cheer to boost associates morale and organizational spirit (Wal-Mart, 2008). â€Å"Who’s Wal-Mart? It is my Wal-Mart† (Wal-Mart, 2008). This is the type of leadership styles that all organizations need to use. This style makes employees want to come to work everyday and they feel secure knowing that they are working for a great organization. Wal-Mart is like one big family and like to make their associates feel like they are an important part of keeping the doors open for everyone. If Walmart this organization are lack of motivation it’ll affects associates also called employees. Lack of motivation equates to less work being accomplished. Productivity does not disappear; it is usually transferred to aspects not related to the organization’s work. Things like personal conversations, Internet surfing or taking longer lunches cost the organization time and money. Reduced productivity can be detrimental to an organization’s performance and future success. Low employee motivation could be due to decreased success of the organization, negative effects from the economy or drastic changes or uncertainty within the organization. No matter what the cause, having the reputation of having an unpleasant work environment due to low employee motivation will ultimately impact how existing and potential clients or partners view working with an organization. A reputation can precede an organization and dictate its future in the industry. The reinforcement approach employee motivation sidesteps the issue of employee needs and thinking processes described in the content and process theories. Reinforcement theory simply looks at the relationship between behavior and its consequences. It focuses on changing or modifying employees’ on –the-job behavior through the appropriate use of immediate rewards and punishments. Behavior modification is the name given to the set of techniques by which reinforcement theory is used to modify human behavior. The basic assumption underlying behavior modification is the law of effect, which states that behavior that is positively reinforced tends to be repeated, and behavior that is not reinforced tends not to be repeated. Reinforcement is defined as anything that causes a certain behavior to be repeated or inhibited. The four reinforcement tools are positive reinforcement, avoidance learning, punishment, and extinction, as summarized in exhibit16.6 Positive reinforcement is the administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence following a desired behavior, such as praise for an employee who arrives on time or does a little extra work. Research shows that positive reinforcement does help to improve performance. Moreover, nonfinancial reinforcement such as positive feedback, social recognition, and attention are just as effective as financial incentives. One study of employees at fast- food drive- thru windows, for example, found that performance feedback and supervisor recognition had a significant effect on increasing the incidence of â€Å"up- selling† or asking customers to increase their order. Montage Hotels &resorts, known for its culture of gracious yet humble service, uses a variety of employee recognition programs to positively reinforce employees for providing exceptional service. CEO Alan J. Fuerstman says â€Å"it’s simple psychology. People commit more acts of kindness when they are appreciated f or them.† Avoidance learning is the removal of an unpleasant consequence once a behavior is improved, theory encouraging and strengthening the desired behavior. Avoidance learning is sometimes called negative reinforcement. The idea is that people will change a specific behavior to avoid the undesired result that behavior provokes. As a simple example, a supervisor who constantly reminds or nags an employee who is goofing off on the factory floor and stops the nagging when the employee stops goofing off is applying avoidance learning. Punishment is the imposition of unpleasant outcomes on an employee. Punishment typically occurs following undesirable behavior. For example, a supervisor may berate an employee for performing a task incorrectly. The supervisor expects that the negative outcome will serve as a punishment and reduce the likelihood of the behavior recurring. The use of punishment in organization is controversial and often criticized because it fails to indicate the correct behavior. However, almost all managers report that they find it necessary to occasionally impose forms of punishment ranging from verbal reprimands to employee suspensions or firings. Extinction is the withholding of a positive reward. Whereas with punishment, the supervisor imposes an unpleasant outcome such as a reprimand, extinction involves withholding praise or other positive outcomes. With extinction, undesirable behavior is essentially ignored. The idea is that behavior that is not positively reinforced will gradually disappear A New York Times reporter wrote a humorous article about how she learned to stop nagging and instead use reinforcement theory to shape her husband’s behavior after studying how professionals train animals. When her husband did something she liked such as throw a dirty shirt in the hamper, she would use positive reinforcement, thanking him or giving him a hug and a kiss. Undesirable behaviors, such as throwing dirty clothes on the floor, on the other hand, were simply ignored, applying the principle of extinction. Reward and punishment motivational practices based on the reinforcement theory dominate organizations. According to the Society for Human Resource Management, 84 percent of all companies in the United States offer some type of monetary or non- monetary reward system, and 69 percent offer incentive pay, such as bonuses, bases on an employee’s performance. However, in other studies, more than 80 percent of employers with incentive programs have reported that their programs are only somewhat successful or working at all. Despite the testimonies of organizations that enjoy successful incentive programs, criticism of these â€Å"carrot- and- stick† methods is growing, as discussed in the Manager’s Shoptalk. If rewards and motivation are failed to fulfill the employees the manager of Walmart should apply some positive reinforcement in order to safe the situation. Positive reinforcement is the practice of rewarding desirable employee behavior in order to strengthen that behavior. For example, when you praise an employee for doing a good job, you increase the likelihood of him/her doing that job very well again. Positive reinforcement both shapes behavior and enhances an employee’s self-image. Recognizing and rewarding desirable employee behavior is the essential key to motivating employees to work more productively. This method will reap many benefits, first it clearly defines and communicates expected behaviors and strengthens the connection between high performance and rewards. It reinforces an employee’s behavior immediately after learning a new technique and promotes quick, thorough learning. It motivates effective workers to continue to do good work. Lack of reinforcement leads to job dissatisfaction. It increases productivity by rewarding workers who conserve time and materials. Employees who are rewarded after they successfully perform feel self-confident and become eager to learn new techniques, take advanced training, and accept more re sponsibility. Rewarding employees who suggest improved work procedures will produce more innovation – if you create a relaxed work environment, reward new ideas and tolerate innovative failures. Employees who receive recognition for their achievements are more enthusiastic about their work, more cooperative, and more open to change. Besides that, when you show appreciation and reward employees for good work, you’ll be able to increase their job commitment and organizational loyalty. In conclusion, giving positive reinforcement does not mean that what is done incorrectly by an employee is to be ignored. Instead, it means to recognize what portion of the work was done correctly first, then follow-up with what can be done better the next time and why the performance or work result was not quite what was expected. If this means the manager must take some of the blame for not giving detailed instructions for the desired behavior or result, they should do so in an apologetic manner and then proceed to explain how the manager personally will try to do better. This is an excellent time for the manager to let the employee know they still have faith in them but need their help and cooperation by their asking questions if the manager’s instructions are not clear. This allows both the employee and manager to get better at communication, which results in improved task completion. Remember mangers need to give positive results first, then follow-up with what improvements are needed, apologize if necessary, and then reinforce what was done right again. When working the improvement or follow-up statement do not use the word â€Å"but† as this word often negates anything said before it and the employee may stop listening as they know a negative is coming next.

Can we leave the past behind? Essay

Within this essay I will be looking at whether we can truly leave our pasts behind or whether they remain a part of us within our present and future. My own belief is that our past is what makes us who we are today. Our experiences from childhood through to adulthood make up our coping mechanisms for future situations and even if we have dealt with issues that may arise they will still remain in our conscious and unconscious minds. Looking at the theories of Melanie Klein in Object Relations and the theory of Erik Erikson and the developmental stages we go through within our lives I aim to evaluate with my answer based on what I have learnt and understood. Looking at the theories relating to this I will look at The Psychoanalytic approach of Sigmund Freud which is still very much used to date. However some of his followers went on to further expand his beliefs and came up with their own. One such person was Melanie Klein, who came up with Object Relations Theory. She removed the emphasis of the biological drives such as the sexual and aggressive tendencies and stressed the importance of interpersonal relationships one has with another. Melanie Klein also looked at the mother and child relationship and the early relationships the child has, primarily being family members, as the importance of the mother/child relationship and the way the child was parented would affect the adult in later life. Object Relations Theory holds the belief that we are relationship seeking individuals rather than pleasure seeking as Freud suggested, and this can be useful for exploring the clients past and any issues they have with intimacy or dependency and identity. The â€Å"object† being a person or an actual object that is significant to the individual and is where they target their feelings and intentions. The â€Å"relations† is the relationship and residues of the individuals past. Objects can be associated with good and bad, good objects fulfilling our needs and bad do not, they can also be an actual object and not another human being, and our basic instinct within adult life will be to seek out others who will reaffirm these early self-object relationships. The main significant facts from Melanie Klein’s work are the belief that the infant has, even before birth, knowledge of their mother unconsciously. The belief that there is an innerdestructive force or death instinct that Klein suggested the infant is caught up in a struggle between the forces of life and death. (2)Melanie Klein agreed with Sigmund Freud in the concept of developmental stages in early life such as the oral, anal and genital stages but said that movement from one to another was less rigid and not definite and also concluded the paranoid-schizoid and depression stages. The paranoid-schizoid stage is when the infant is between three and four months of age and when the infant has its f irst experiences of the outside world. paranoid-schizoid is both good and bad experiences split completely with no grey areas. the paranoid is the fear that the infant may feel and the schizoid being the defence the infant uses. Consistent good experiences in this stage will lead to self-acceptance and bad experiences within this stage can lead to low self-esteem within the adult life. The depressive position follows and goes into the infants second year. This is where the child may have negative emotions towards the object, such as the mother, and can cause anxiety. This can be seen in adults in later life, if they have been through this stage they may have difficulties seeing people as whole people. Unlike Sigmund Freud, Melanie Klein worked directly with children using her own technique of play therapy. This enabled Klein to evaluate the children by directly communicating with them. The child is seen for a set time in the same room every week which is kept the same and unrelated items are not left in the room. The child has their own box of toys and art materials and for those younger, a sink of water is available. After the session the items are locked away ready for use the following session. There is a reliable background for the therapist to observe the child at play but this must only be done with experienced therapists as it is very hard to desist the child and there needs to be a fine balance between interaction and behaviour by the the analyst. Using Object Relations Theory in the therapy setting we are looking at building that relationship between therapist and client, which in all concepts is required. We see the needs from the Object relations of context, and focus so, the context being the nurture and security of the mother, which the client requires from us as a therapist, they require the security to feel safe and able to share their problems in a confidential environment and the nurture and care to show understanding. The client and therapist join together in a professional relationship in a way in which they can work together looking at the clients past and enabling the client to move forwards. The therapist offers themselves in a way in which is suitable for the professional relationship but enables the client to place their feelings of the ‘object’ upon them, and their therapist is able to see directly how the client relates, or where the problems lie. Working this way is called transference. The therapist is then able to analyze these feelings and relate them back to the client using countertransference but in a way which is not harmful to the client nor their working relationship. In order to work like this the therapist must make sure they have no issues themselves which could counter product the relationship. Looking at Objects Relation Theory against the title of â€Å"Can we leave the past behind? † I can see that the experiences of the child will be brought forward into later life and thus causing conflict in future situations, also the same can be said for good experiences as we hold onto these and self-actualise as an adult. Based on this theory I would say no, we can not leave the past behind, However I can only see how using this within a relationship context would be useful, I can not see how it would work within other areas of therapists work. Also the theories of Object Relations differ widely with others who have looked into this with the respect of key concepts, assumptions and principles, but does suggest that the idea signifies the systematic effort to account for personality development and pathology on the basis of internalization of relationships with others(1). Looking at another theorist, I move onto Erik Erikson. Erikson was a Freudian Ego-Psychologist who believed more in the society and cultural orientation. He accepted the works of Sigmund Freud but also stated that the developmental stages do not stop at adolescence, they continue throughout life until death, and that there is a great emphasis on the adolescence ages as he felt his stage was critical in developing a persons identity. The belief is that our personality builds on previous stages and in a predetermined order, also known as epigenetic stages. Erickson said that each stage has completion tasks and our success in one stage depends on the level of success in previous stages, if we do not have our needs met in previous stages this may hold us back for the future. If we have a bad experience within one stage this can also case maladaptive behaviours relating to it and rushing through the stages can have a huge effect on our personal growth, but completion of the tasks and success in the stages would give us a wide and integrated set of life skills and abilities that function together within the individual. Within the first stage of birth to eighteen months we learn the concepts of trust and mistrust. Having our needs met through the Freudian oral stage from feeding and meeting our basic survival needs will lead to trust but failure of this will lead to mistrust.looking at this within our lives, we needs a balance of both in order to survive. We can not completely trust the stranger who approaches us and asks for our help but we need to follow them. Our instinct would be to be cautious and whether this is putting ourselves in danger, to look at this in the ages stated, if a baby is in a situation they are fearful of, they normally cry, the pare nt would then console them and support them. When in this situation again the baby would have hope of that support again, if this is not offered the fear will remain. In this stage if we learn the right skills we would have a sense of hope to continue to the next stage. The second following on until the infant reaches three years of age, where the child learns physical skills such as toilet training. The parenting in these stages are detrimental to the success. Having rules put in place but removing the controlling part of parenting enables the child to grow and encourages self-esteem, if this is lacking , or if a bad experience occurs here then at adult stages we could see clients attending for self-esteem issues and perhaps even dependency issues. If there is success in this stage the child learns the skill of ‘will’ but failure may lead them to feel inadequate. The third stage follows until the child reaches six years of age and the importance of independence is learnt along with the consequences of their behaviour. Children will seek approval from their parents increasing their confidence and will explore more interpersonal skills through their own initiative. A healthy balance of gaining independence but also realising what could happen if something went wrong would give the child a sense of purpose. In the latency stage that follows until the child reaches twelve, then education comes into play. Learning the social skills that the world requires from them. Completion of this stages enables the child to feel accomplished but failure can lead to feelings of inadequacy. the key is to keep the child balanced. There may be other problems that arise at this stage such as bullying, or child labelling which should be looked into as this can have a detrimental impact of later stages. The peer group of the child plays a major part in their self-esteem. Success here and the child would learn competence, but in order to remain humble they need a balance of this and modesty. Within adolescence self awareness rarely exists. This is the time of relationships, sexuality, and fitting in with peers. The teenager must accomplish a sense of identity in this stage and be aware of where they fit in within their society and environment. Erikson believed there were two areas to gain an identity in one being the occupational and one being the sexual. Within this stage the individual is learning to adjust to their changing body and this ,may bring up issues of confidence within themselves. They must also learn to accept others and their differences and would learn the life skill of fidelity. From the age of nineteen to forty, being successful within these years would provide love. Growing through relationships with others and exploring these and this is where intimacy would start to be in play. We then move on to parenting ourselves. , however, we do not have to have children of our own to be successful at this stage, providing for future generativity through our work will give the person the capacity to care. There is an event which may occur at this stage, being the ‘mid life crisis’. The change from caring for I to caring for others can be frightning for some. The final stage is a time for reflection on our lives and until death, however, death can occur at any stage. This stage is about coming to terms with our lives and accepting our experiences. Erik Erikson provided us with a strong understanding of the human development within the psychology aspects, however, he was rather vague about the causes of development and what kinds of experiences we must have to succeed. There is also no explanation of how the outcome of one psychosocial stage affects personality at a later stage. Using Erik Eriksons theory we are able to determine and identify the stages that we develop certain skills and if a client approaches us with a certain issue we are able to look at this timeline and go back to those areas in the individuals life where the self esteem is in play and see what events occurred at that time. Thus really answering the question of ‘can we leave our past behind’ as doing this would state we can not if we are going back in the clients life. To summarise both Erik Erikson and Melanie Klein are looking at the clients past within their theories in order to resolve the clients presenting issues so leaving the past behind here is not an option. Through Erik Erikson we are able to locate the clients issue in the present to a certain stage in their past and take the client back to that tie in their lives to see what happened which may cause the conflict now. With Melanie Klein we are going right back to the infant and mother bonds but here we are only really looking at relationships and how the client would relate to people now. There is no option for using this on other issues the client may present with. Both of these theorists are also pointing towards the great nature versus nurture debate and stating that our behaviours are learnt through how we grow as individuals therefore being within the nurture category. Whereas other theories may look entirely at the clients presenting issue and how we can move them forward now and do not look in the past, my belief is that integrating the two as a therapist would have more beneficial outcome for the client than looking at just one or the other. For instance, if a client approaches with a maladaptive behaviour we could go back in the clients life to find where this started and what happened, using Erikson theory and then integrate it with humanistic theories and look at the here and now and how we can move the client forward. Can we leave the past behind? my answer, no. Our past is what makes us who we are in our present and who we will be in our future. Accepting our genetics and our traits inherited from our parents and the influences of our external environment will allow us to recognise ourselves and gain self-awareness. Our learnt behaviours from our childhood will make up our coping mechanisms for situations we may face and whether we have accomplished the stages of Erik Erikson or had the relationships we require through Object Relations theory we will still have the memories and thoughts from our past.  in order to reconcile these we have to accept the decisions made for us by our parents and those we made ourselves were right for us at the time even if we begin to question them at a later date. In our futures we are not able to wipe the slate clean, so to speak and begin our lives again and any events that may arise will inevitably remind us of our past experiences. This may be difficult if we have had a harsh childhood as it can reopen old wounds, but this is where the therapist can help, such as anxiety issues and alcohol or drug misuse and maladaptive behaviors can all be changed in order for us to grow as an individual and make our future a better one. Our past has given us a valuable set of life goals, regardless of them being good, or bad, they make us the person we are today and valuing ourselves as well as valuing others will continue our success in the future.

The Uk Should Leave The European Union - 1593 Words

Identify and analyse the major issues that divide those in favour of the Britain’s leaving the European Union and those who oppose it. Who do you expect to be the major gainers and losers? Be sure to explain why you see them as gaining or losing, using economic reasoning. You should suggest which of these gains and losses you think are likely to be most important. Throughout this essay I am going to be exploring the current issues surrounding the decision of whether or not the UK should leave the European Union. I will be researching and looking at the major issues for those in favour of Britain leaving the EU as well as the issues for those who oppose the decision. Another factor I will be examining is the potential†¦show more content†¦EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital, enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries, and regional development (European Commission, 2015). Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. Over the next few years the issue of the UK’s membership of the EU is likely to be at the centre of political debates. The main parties recognised that a referendum on membership was necessary but it is incredibly difficult to overstate the significance of a vote that would determine whether the UK remains part of the union, the wealthiest economic entity in the world (Portes, 2013). Perhaps the greatest uncertainty associated with leaving the EU is that no country has ever done it before, so no one can predict the exact result. One of the biggest advantages of the EU is free trade between member nations, making it easier and cheaper for British companies to export their goods to Europe. However some economic researchers believe these savings outweigh the billions of pounds in membership fees Britain would save if it left the EU. The UK would also risk losing some of its negotiation power internationally by leaving the trading bloc, but it would be free to establish trade agreements with non-EU countries. There are many problems with increased